(These notes should be read in conjunction with the A Level Introductory Notes on Studying a Play which should be read first.)

1) This is a difficult question. Words can be ambiguous. Ambiguity is a literary device. There are layers of meaning in literature.

2) Don't worry! Every reader is entitled to his or her own reading and thoughts on a play. As long as you can support your views by quoting from the test your opinion is as valid as anyone's. However, the more you read and study the more informed your opinion will become.

3) Critics through the ages have changed their minds about the 'meaning' of a play. When you read a critical essay remember that what you are reading is one person's opinion and that another critic may hold a very different, but equally valid view.

'... In any case so important as that of Shakespeare, it is good that we should from time to time change our minds. . . About anyone so great as Shakespeare, it is probable that we can never be right; and if we can never be right, it is better that we should from time to time change our way of being wrong.'

T.S. Eliot (Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca)

4) As well as the 'meaning' you need to consider the significance of what is said.

e.g. - Are Hamlet and Othello damned or saved at the end?

e.g. - What about Lear's last speech? A.C. Bradley, in Shakespearean Tragedy argued that Lear died happy because he thought Cordelia was alive. However, more modern critics argue Lear dies knowing Cordelia is dead but unwilling to admit it.

5) So, it is more helpful to ask yourself 'Why is he saying this at this particular moment in the play?' Rather than - 'What is Shakespeare saying here?'

6) In order to answer 'why?' you need to know the play well and discuss it with others.

7) Consider the play under the following headings:

1. The theme of the play.
2. The structure of the play.
3. The characters of the play.
4. The language of the play.

a. The theme of the play

This helps you to focus on the rest of the play. A theme is more abstract than 'what is the play about?' It is helpful with Shakespeare to read other plays within the same group.

i.e. Tragedies/Comedies/Histories/Romances. (See notes on the play you are studying for more detailed help.)

b. The structure of the play

1. Does the action fall into a pattern?
2. How are scenes related?
3. Each play has its own structure but there are some basic patterns. On the whole plays divide into 3 sections.
1. Exposition - this establishes the situation and the main character relationships.
2. Development - this moves the conflict established to its climax.
3. Denouement this resolves the conflict and re-establishes some form of equilibrium.
4. Critics have further classified different forms of plot within this 3 part structure. The following three classifications are the ones you are most likely to come across in your reading.

c. Single or episodic action

This is where there is one action which proceeds by clear stages. Usually it centres on one man.

E.g. in Macbeth there are 3 main episodes.

a) Macbeth's relationship with Duncan

b) Macbeth's relationship with Banquo

c) Macbeth's relationship with Macduff

d) The episode of Macbeth's defeat.

River Action

This is where several actions, not closely linked, are kept moving in parallel, to be integrated at the end of the play. Many of the comedies are of this type. e.g. Midsummer Night's Dream Twelfth Night/ Much Ado about Nothing.

Mirror Action

This is where there is a main plot and a sub-plot. The best example is Kina Lear.

c) The Characters of the Play

1. You will not find full rounded characters in Shakespeare in the same way that you might find such characterisation in a novel.
2. Try seeing the characters as vehicles used to carry ideas or themes.
3. It is sometimes useful to ask 'What is the significance of so- and -so?'
4. Characters only make sense when viewed as part of a larger whole.
5. Consider relationships with other characters.
6. When you know the play well it is helpful to look at the play from the viewpoint of each of the main characters.

d) The language of the play

1. Examine the language carefully. Why does Shakespeare choose to write the way he does? Is the scene in prose/verse/ blank verse?
2. Is there much variety of language?
3. What metaphors are used? WHY?
4. What imagery is used? WHY?

8) Finally - Enjoy your studies!! Try and read more of Shakespeare's plays. The more you read the easier and more rewarding his work becomes.

Notes taken from Shakespeare by K. H. Grose and B. T. Oxley.

I recommend this book as a sound introduction to the study of Shakespeare.